General Theory of Living Systems - Revision history

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 In 1978 James Grier Miller attempted a [[General Theory of Living Systems]] <ref>James Grier Miller ''Living Systems'' 1978 ISBN 978-0070420151</ref> which proposed rigid taxonomies of levels of [[Complexity]] and common processes contained in each level. As with all taxonomies of living systems, this one necessarily has very fuzzing boundaries which help a new learner, but which become an undue burden if carried to extremely fine detail. Miller understood all of this and selected a number of levels that best fit his data. None-the-less, this page will continue in Miller's path and try the same taxonomic approach, but first a short description of alternate methods. Whereas Miller thought that living systems were a subset of all systems, this page takes the view that all complex, successful, enduring systems are subject to the laws of evolution (specifically survival of the fittest) and hence should be considered to be living systems.
-In 1979 Douglas Hofstadter  started making the case that natural thinking involved "chunking" small ideas together to make a smaller number of classes of objects <ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid'' 1979 Vintage ISBN 0-39474502-7</ref> that abstracted away the details in ways that were currently in process in "object oriented programming. He continued this line of development into the use of fluid analogies in our own thought as a model for how computer networks should work.<ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models Of The Fundamental Mechanisms Of Thought'' 1995 ISBN 978-0465024759 </ref> Analogies (which we make constantly, relentlessly and mostly unconsciously) are what allow categorization to happen. "Our minds are constructed with an unlimited quality for 'chunking' primordial concepts, which then become larger concepts." As an example the word "hub," as in "Denver is the hub for United Airlines," brings to mind a large linked network of concepts that are "chunked" together to make up the commonly used term. Other examples range from basics like "wheel" and "node" to higher-order concepts like "spoke" and "network." Higher-order concepts are assembled from lower-order concepts. He believes there no fundamental difference in thinking with basic concepts and very large concepts because we don't "see" inside them. We build concepts by putting several concepts together and putting a membrane around them and giving that a name. Kind of miraculously these [interior] concepts disappear into the named high-order concept. In mathematics this is called [[Abstract Thinking]] and in computer science it is called [[Information Hiding]].
+In 1979 Douglas Hofstadter  started making the case that natural thinking involved "chunking" small ideas together to make a smaller number of classes of objects <ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid'' 1979 Vintage ISBN 0-39474502-7</ref> that abstracted away the details in ways that were currently in process in "object oriented programming. He continued this line of development into the use of fluid analogies in our own thought as a model for how computer networks should work.<ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models Of The Fundamental Mechanisms Of Thought'' 1995 ISBN 978-0465024759 </ref> Analogies (which we make constantly, relentlessly and mostly unconsciously) are what allow categorization to happen. "Our minds are constructed with an unlimited quality for 'chunking' primordial concepts, which then become larger concepts." As an example the word "hub," as in "Denver is the hub for United Airlines," brings to mind a large linked network of concepts that are "chunked" together to make up the commonly used term. Other examples range from basics like "wheel" and "node" to higher-order concepts like "spoke" and "network." Higher-order concepts are assembled from lower-order concepts. He believes there no fundamental difference in thinking with basic concepts and very large concepts because we don't "see" inside them. We build concepts by putting several concepts together and putting a membrane around them and giving that a name. Kind of miraculously these [[Interior Identity]] concepts disappear into the named high-order concept. In mathematics this is called [[Abstract Thinking]] and in computer science it is called [[Information Hiding]].
 While high-level languages and object-oriented programming (OOP) were present in the early days of computing (e.g. MAD and Smalltalk), they did not capture a significant mind-share of working programmers until the release of Java in 1996. With OOP languages, encapsulation or information hiding became a recognized feature of computer system architectures. While this sound like "chunking", one of its purposes was to hide details. Whereas living systems create abstract chunks, information hiding created pieces that were sealed and did not expose details of the implementation. So information hiding does not allow for level crossing and does not share the capability in open systems for higher level systems to directly interface with lower level systems. Since this is a general theory, we cannot assume that information hiding is necessary or appropriate, although privacy advocates might disagree.

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 In 1978 James Grier Miller attempted a [[General Theory of Living Systems]] <ref>James Grier Miller ''Living Systems'' 1978 ISBN 978-0070420151</ref> which proposed rigid taxonomies of levels of [[Complexity]] and common processes contained in each level. As with all taxonomies of living systems, this one necessarily has very fuzzing boundaries which help a new learner, but which become an undue burden if carried to extremely fine detail. Miller understood all of this and selected a number of levels that best fit his data. None-the-less, this page will continue in Miller's path and try the same taxonomic approach, but first a short description of alternate methods. Whereas Miller thought that living systems were a subset of all systems, this page takes the view that all complex, successful, enduring systems are subject to the laws of evolution (specifically survival of the fittest) and hence should be considered to be living systems.
-In 1979 Douglas Hofstadter  started making the case that natural thinking involved "chunking" small ideas together to make a smaller number of classes of objects <ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid'' 1979 Vintage ISBN 0-39474502-7</ref> that abstracted away the details in ways that were currently in process in "object oriented programming. He continued this line of development into the use of fluid analogies in our own thought as a model for how computer networks should work.<ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models Of The Fundamental Mechanisms Of Thought'' 1995 ISBN 978-0465024759 </ref>
+In 1979 Douglas Hofstadter  started making the case that natural thinking involved "chunking" small ideas together to make a smaller number of classes of objects <ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid'' 1979 Vintage ISBN 0-39474502-7</ref> that abstracted away the details in ways that were currently in process in "object oriented programming. He continued this line of development into the use of fluid analogies in our own thought as a model for how computer networks should work.<ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models Of The Fundamental Mechanisms Of Thought'' 1995 ISBN 978-0465024759 </ref> Analogies (which we make constantly, relentlessly and mostly unconsciously) are what allow categorization to happen. "Our minds are constructed with an unlimited quality for 'chunking' primordial concepts, which then become larger concepts." As an example the word "hub," as in "Denver is the hub for United Airlines," brings to mind a large linked network of concepts that are "chunked" together to make up the commonly used term. Other examples range from basics like "wheel" and "node" to higher-order concepts like "spoke" and "network." Higher-order concepts are assembled from lower-order concepts. He believes there no fundamental difference in thinking with basic concepts and very large concepts because we don't "see" inside them. We build concepts by putting several concepts together and putting a membrane around them and giving that a name. Kind of miraculously these [interior] concepts disappear into the named high-order concept. In mathematics this is called [[Abstract Thinking]] and in computer science it is called [[Information Hiding]].
 While high-level languages and object-oriented programming (OOP) were present in the early days of computing (e.g. MAD and Smalltalk), they did not capture a significant mind-share of working programmers until the release of Java in 1996. With OOP languages, encapsulation or information hiding became a recognized feature of computer system architectures. While this sound like "chunking", one of its purposes was to hide details. Whereas living systems create abstract chunks, information hiding created pieces that were sealed and did not expose details of the implementation. So information hiding does not allow for level crossing and does not share the capability in open systems for higher level systems to directly interface with lower level systems. Since this is a general theory, we cannot assume that information hiding is necessary or appropriate, although privacy advocates might disagree.

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 ===Software as a Living System===
-In an example given by Lee<ref name="lee"> Edward E. Lee, ''Is Software the Result of Top-Down Intelligent Design or Evolution?'' (2018-09) '''CACM 61''' No 9 pp. 31-39</ref> where an individual [[Entity]] is an executing computer program(s). While many are short-lived, others like Wikipedia seem to have a life of their own and even interbreeds with other software systems just like a living system. It reacts to stimulus from its environment and requires energy and information inputs. It operates autonomously, defends itself from attack and replicates (the last 3 with help from humans at this point). Wikipedia is a good example of a symbiosis where people and programs inter-operate to the benefit of both. Certainly program are written by humans with a purpose, but that purpose is driven by the current ecosystem and will adapt as the ecosystem adapts, or it will just die out. The growth of [[Artificial Intelligence]] will make programs even more capable of self-adaption to changes in the ecosystem including to new attacks as they are deployed.
+In an example given by Lee<ref name="lee"> Edward E. Lee, ''Is Software the Result of Top-Down Intelligent Design or Evolution?'' (2018-09) '''CACM 61''' No 9 pp. 31-39</ref> where an individual [[Entity]] is an executing computer program(s). While many are short-lived, others like Wikipedia seem to have a life of their own and even interbreeds with other software systems just like a living system. It reacts to stimulus from its environment and requires energy and information inputs. It operates autonomously, defends itself from attack and replicates (the last 3 with help from humans at this point). Wikipedia is a good example of a symbiosis where people and programs inter-operate to the benefit of both. Certainly program are written by humans with a purpose, but that purpose is driven by the current ecosystem and                             will adapt as the ecosystem adapts, or it will just die out. The growth of [[Artificial Intelligence]] will make programs even more capable of self-adaption to changes in the ecosystem including to new attacks as they are deployed.
-* For the way that information interacts in a complete body seem the wiki [[General Theory of Thinking Systems]]
+* For the way that information interacts in the components of a bran see the wiki [[General Theory of Thinking Systems]]
 ==References==

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 ===Software as a Living System===
 In an example given by Lee<ref name="lee"> Edward E. Lee, ''Is Software the Result of Top-Down Intelligent Design or Evolution?'' (2018-09) '''CACM 61''' No 9 pp. 31-39</ref> where an individual [[Entity]] is an executing computer program(s). While many are short-lived, others like Wikipedia seem to have a life of their own and even interbreeds with other software systems just like a living system. It reacts to stimulus from its environment and requires energy and information inputs. It operates autonomously, defends itself from attack and replicates (the last 3 with help from humans at this point). Wikipedia is a good example of a symbiosis where people and programs inter-operate to the benefit of both. Certainly program are written by humans with a purpose, but that purpose is driven by the current ecosystem and will adapt as the ecosystem adapts, or it will just die out. The growth of [[Artificial Intelligence]] will make programs even more capable of self-adaption to changes in the ecosystem including to new attacks as they are deployed.
 ==References==

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 In 1978 James Grier Miller attempted a [[General Theory of Living Systems]] <ref>James Grier Miller ''Living Systems'' 1978 ISBN 978-0070420151</ref> which proposed rigid taxonomies of levels of [[Complexity]] and common processes contained in each level. As with all taxonomies of living systems, this one necessarily has very fuzzing boundaries which help a new learner, but which become an undue burden if carried to extremely fine detail. Miller understood all of this and selected a number of levels that best fit his data. None-the-less, this page will continue in Miller's path and try the same taxonomic approach, but first a short description of alternate methods. Whereas Miller thought that living systems were a subset of all systems, this page takes the view that all complex, successful, enduring systems are subject to the laws of evolution (specifically survival of the fittest) and hence should be considered to be living systems.
-In 1979 Douglas Hofstadter  started making the case that natural thinking involved "chunking" small ideas together to make a smaller number of classes of objects <ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid'' 1979 Vintage ISBN 0-39474502-7</ref> that hide the details in ways that were currently in process in "object oriented programming. He continued this line of development into the use of fluid analogies in our own thought as a model for how computer networks should work.<ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models Of The Fundamental Mechanisms Of Thought'' 1995 ISBN 978-0465024759 </ref>
+In 1979 Douglas Hofstadter  started making the case that natural thinking involved "chunking" small ideas together to make a smaller number of classes of objects <ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid'' 1979 Vintage ISBN 0-39474502-7</ref> that abstracted away the details in ways that were currently in process in "object oriented programming. He continued this line of development into the use of fluid analogies in our own thought as a model for how computer networks should work.<ref>Douglas R. Hofstadter, ''Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models Of The Fundamental Mechanisms Of Thought'' 1995 ISBN 978-0465024759 </ref>
 Analogies (which we make constantly, relentlessly and mostly unconsciously) are what allow categorization to happen. "Our minds are constructed with an unlimited quality for 'chunking' primordial concepts, which then become larger concepts." As an example the word "hub," as in "Denver is the hub for United Airlines," brings to mind a large linked network of concepts that are "chunked" together to make up the commonly used term. Other examples range from basics like "wheel" and "node" to higher-order concepts like "spoke" and "network." Higher-order concepts are assembled from lower-order concepts. He believes there no fundamental difference in thinking with basic concepts and very large concepts because we don't "see" inside them. We build concepts by putting several concepts together and putting a membrane around them and giving that a name. Kind of miraculously these [interior] concepts disappear into the named high-order concept. In mathematics this is called [[Abstract Thinking]] and in computer science it is called [[Information Hiding]].

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 [[Homeostasis]] provides the description of systems that can maintain themselves and describes the difficulty of using [[Stability]] at one level of a hierarchy of systems to a higher level.
-[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EusocialityEusociality] the highest level of organization of sociality, is defined by the following characteristics: cooperative brood care (including care of offspring from other individuals), overlapping generations within a colony of adults, and a division of labor into reproductive and non-reproductive groups. The division of labor creates specialized behavioral groups within an animal society which are sometimes referred to as 'castes'. Eusociality is distinguished from all other social systems because individuals of at least one caste usually lose the ability to perform at least one behavior characteristic of individuals in another caste. Eusocial species are rare, perhaps less that 30, and span the range from ants to humans.
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusociality Eusociality] the highest level of organization of sociality, is defined by the following characteristics: cooperative brood care (including care of offspring from other individuals), overlapping generations within a colony of adults, and a division of labor into reproductive and non-reproductive groups. The division of labor creates specialized behavioral groups within an animal society which are sometimes referred to as 'castes'. Eusociality is distinguished from all other social systems because individuals of at least one caste usually lose the ability to perform at least one behavior characteristic of individuals in another caste. Eusocial species are rare, perhaps less that 30, and span the range from ants to humans.
 ==Problems==

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	[[Homeostasis]] provides the description of systems that can maintain themselves and describes the difficulty of using [[Stability]] at one level of a hierarchy of systems to a higher level.		[[Homeostasis]] provides the description of systems that can maintain themselves and describes the difficulty of using [[Stability]] at one level of a hierarchy of systems to a higher level.
		+
		+	[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EusocialityEusociality] the highest level of organization of sociality, is defined by the following characteristics: cooperative brood care (including care of offspring from other individuals), overlapping generations within a colony of adults, and a division of labor into reproductive and non-reproductive groups. The division of labor creates specialized behavioral groups within an animal society which are sometimes referred to as 'castes'. Eusociality is distinguished from all other social systems because individuals of at least one caste usually lose the ability to perform at least one behavior characteristic of individuals in another caste. Eusocial colonies can be viewed as superorganisms.

	==Problems==		==Problems==